Who (UK)

* George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham (1592-1628) (UK):
- George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham KG was the favourite, claimed by some to be the lover, of King James I of England. Despite a very patchy political and military record, he remained at the height of royal favour for the first two years of the reign of Charles I, until he was assassinated. He was one of the most rewarded royal courtiers in all history.
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* Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) (UK):
- Oliver Cromwell was an English military and political leader best known in England for his overthrow of the monarchy and temporarily turning England into a republican Commonwealth, and for his rule as Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland.
- Cromwell was one of the commanders of the New Model Army which defeated the royalists in the English Civil War (1642-1651). After the execution of King Charles I in 1649, Cromwell dominated the short-lived Commonwealth of England, conquered Ireland and Scotland, and ruled as Lord Protector from 1653 until his death in 1658.
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* John Churchill (1650-1722) & Sarah Churchill (1660-1744) (UK):
- John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, Prince of Mindelheim, KG, PC was an English soldier and statesman whose career spanned the reigns of 5 monarchs through the late 17th and early 18th centuries. His marriage to the hot-tempered Sarah Jennings – Anne's intimate friend – ensured Marlborough's rise, first to the Captain-Generalcy of British forces, then to a dukedom.
- Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough rose to be one of the most influential women in British history as a result of her close friendship with Queen Anne of Great Britain.
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* Robert Walpole (1676-1745):
- Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford, KG, KB, PC, known before 1742 as Sir Robert Walpole, was a British statesman who is generally regarded as having been the first Prime Minister of Great Britain. Although the position of "Prime Minister" had no recognition in law or official use at the time, Walpole is nevertheless acknowledged as having held the office de facto because of his influence within the Cabinet.
- A Whig who was first elected in 1701, Walpole served during the reigns of George I and George II. His tenure is normally dated from 1721 when he obtained the post of First Lord of the Treasury; others date it from 1730 when, with the retirement of Lord Townshend, he became the sole and undisputed leader of the Cabinet.
- The most able of George's ministers, and known as the first 'Prime Minister', Robert Walpole's was the longest running administration in British history (1721-42).
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* Abraham Darby III (1750-1791) (ironmaster) (the Industrial Revolution):

The Iron Bridge,
Coalbrookdale

- Abraham Darby III was an English ironmaster and Quaker. He was the third Abraham Darby in three generations of an English Quaker family that played a role in the Industrial Revolution. He was born on Coalbrookdale, Shropshire in 1750. He built the largest cast iron structure of his era: the first iron bridge ever built. It crossed over the Severn near Coalbrookdale. The bridge caused the village of Ironbridge, Shropshire to grow up around it, with the area being subsequently named Ironbridge Gorge.
- In 1985 a rose cultivar bred by David Austin was named after Abraham Darby.

Historians

* Orderic Vitalis (Ordericus) (1075–c.1142) (English) (chronicler):
- Orderic Vitalis was an English chronicler of Norman ancestry who wrote one of the great contemporary chronicles of 11th and 12th century Normandy and Anglo-Norman England. The modern biographer of Henry I of England, C. Warren Hollister, called him "an honest and trustworthy guide to the history of his times."
- chronicle (vt) /ˈkrɒn.ɪ.kl ̩/: to make a record or give details of something
- chronicler: người ghi chép sử biên niên
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* Leonardo Bruni (c.1370-1444) (Italy):
- Leonardo Bruni was an Italian humanist, historian and statesman, who was chancellor of Florence. He has been called the first modern historian.
- Hình như ông là người đã phát minh ra khung lịch sử ba thời kỳ: cổ đại, trung cổ và hiện đại.
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* Peter Martyr d'Anghiera (1457-1526) (Spain) (historian):
- Peter Martyr d'Anghiera  was an Italian-born historian of Spain and its discoveries during the Age of Exploration (early 15th century - early 17th century). He wrote the first accounts of explorations in Central and South America in a series of letters and reports, grouped in the original Latin publications of 1511 to 1530 into sets of ten chapters called "decades." His Decades are of great value in the history of geography and discovery. His De Orbe Novo (On the New World, 1530) describes the first contacts of Europeans and Native Americans and contains, for example, the first European reference to India rubber.
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* Oswald Spengler (1880-1936) (German) (philosopher):
- Oswald Manuel Arnold Gottfried Spengler was a German historian and philosopher whose interests also included mathematics, science, and art. He is best known for his book The Decline of the West (Der Untergang des Abendlandes), published in 1918, which puts forth a cyclical theory of the rise and decline of civilizations. In 1920 Spengler produced Prussiandom and Socialism (Preußentum und Sozialismus), which argued for an organic, nationalist version of socialism and authoritarianism. He wrote extensively throughout World War I and the interwar period, and supported German hegemony in Europe. Some National Socialists (such as Goebells) held Spengler as an intellectual precursor but he was ostracised after 1933 for his pessimism about Germany and Europe's future, his refusal to support Nazi ideas of racial superiority, and his critical work The Hour of Decision.
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* Dame Frances Amelia Yates (1899-1981) (British) (female):
- Dame Frances Amelia Yates DBE was a British historian. She taught at the Warburg Institute of the University of London for many years. She wrote extensively on the occult or Neoplatonic philosophies of the Renaissance. Her books Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition (1964), The Art of Memory (1966), and The Rosicrucian Enlightenment (1971) are major works.
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* Henry Edward Guerlac (1910-1985) (American) (science):
- Henry Edward Guerlac was an American historian of science. He taught at Cornell University where he was the Goldwin Smith Professor of History and a member of the Department of History. Guerlac earned his PhD in European history from Harvard in 1941. He was awarded the Pfizer Award in 1959 by the History of Science Society for his book Lavoisier: The Cucial Year, and was given the Dexter Prize from the American Chemical Society in 1972. He won the George Sarton Medal, the highest award given by the History of Science Society, in 1973.
- See: Guerlac's book -- Newton on the continent (amazon.com)
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* Jim Bradbury (born1937) (British):
- Jim Bradbury is a British historian.
- major: Middle Ages; military.

Who (USA) (1)

* Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) (the 3rd President of US from 1801-1809):
- Thomas Jefferson was the third President of the United States (1801–1809) and the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776). An influential Founding Father, Jefferson envisioned America as a great "Empire of Liberty" that would promote republicanism.

- Jefferson served as the wartime Governor of Virginia (1779–1781), barely escaping capture by the British in 1781. Many people were not pleased with his tenure and in the next election he did not win office again in Virginia. From 1784 through late 1789 Jefferson lived outside the United States. He served in Paris initially as a commissioner to help negotiate commercial treaties. In May 1785 he succeeded Benjamin Franklin as the U.S. Minister to France.

- He was the first United States Secretary of State (1789–1793) under George Washington and advised him against a national bank and the Jay Treaty. He was the second Vice President (1797–1801) under John Adams. Winning on an anti-federalist platform, Jefferson took the oath of office and became President of the United States in 1801. As president he negotiated the Louisiana Purchase (1803), and sent the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806) to explore the vast new territory and lands further west. Jefferson always distrusted Britain as a threat to American security; he rejected a renewal of the Jay Treaty that his ambassadors had negotiated in 1806 with Britain and promoted aggressive action, such as the embargo laws, that contributed to the already escalating tensions with Britain and France leading to war with Britain in 1812 after he left office.
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* Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881) (anthropologist: Nhà nhân loại học):
- Lewis Henry Morgan (November 21, 1818 – December 17, 1881) was a pioneering American anthropologist and social theorist. He is best known for his work on kinship and social structure, his theories of social evolution, and his ethnography of the Iroquois. Due to his study of kinship, Morgan was among early proponents of the theory that the indigenous peoples of the Americas had migrated from Asia in ancient times.
- Morgan was a contemporary of the European social theorists Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who were influenced by reading his work on social structure and material culture. Morgan is the only American social theorist to be cited (được trích dẫn; được biểu dương) by such diverse (đa dạng) scholars as Marx (1818-1883), Charles Darwin (1809-1882), and Sigmund Freud (1856-1939).

Who (19th century)

Braille letters

* Louis Braille (1809-1852) (French):
- Louis Braille was the inventor of braille, a system of reading and writing used by people who are blind and visually impaired. One reads braille by passing one's fingers over characters, each of which is an arrangement of one to six embossed points. The system has been adapted for languages worldwide.
- Louis Braille là một Gutenberg của người mù. Những người khiếm thị trong thế giới phương Tây vẫn đang đi theo con đường dẫn tới máy in do cậu bé thông minh người Pháp này sáng chế ra. Ở thế kỷ 20, kỹ thuật ghi âm đã tạo khả năng cho những “sách biết nói” - vốn là một trong những mục tiêu của Edison khi ông sáng chế ra máy đĩa hát. Nhưng vẫn chưa có phương pháp nào thay thế được một cách thỏa mãn sáng chế của Braille. Cuối thế kỷ 20, Thư Viện Quốc Hội Mỹ thông qua Phòng Thư Viện Quốc Gia Cho Người Khiếm Thị và Khuyết Tật, đã cống hiến trên 30.000 cuốn sách dưới nhiều dạng và hằng năm vẫn chuyển dịch khoảng 2.000 cuốn mới và 1.000 tạp chí hiện có sang sách bằng chữ Braille.
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* Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) (English) (naturalist) (natural selection):
- Charles Robert Darwin FRS was an English naturalist. He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestry, and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection. He published his theory with compelling evidence for evolution in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, overcoming scientific rejection of earlier concepts of transmutation of species.
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* Karl Heinrich Marx (1818-1883) (German) (philosopher):
- Karl Heinrich Marx was a German philosopher, sociologist, historian, political economist, political theorist, journalist and revolutionary socialist, who developed the socio-political theory of Marxism. His ideas have since played a significant role in the development of social science and the socialist political movement. He published various books during his lifetime, with the most notable being The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Capital (1867–1894), many of which were co-written with his friend, the fellow German revolutionary socialist Friedrich Engels (1820-1895).
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* John Ruskin (1819-1900) (English) (artist):
- John Ruskin was an English art critic and social thinker, also remembered as a poet and artist. His essays on art and architecture were extremely influential in the Victorian and Edwardian eras.
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* Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890) (German) (businessman):
- Heinrich Schliemann was a German businessman and amateur archaeologist, and an advocate (người biện hộ, người bào chữa) of the historical reality of places mentioned in the works of Homer. Schliemann was an archaeological excavator of Troy, along with the Mycenaean sites Mycenae and Tiryns. His work lent weight to the idea that Homer's Iliad and Virgil's Aeneid reflect actual historical events.
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* Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) (French):
- Louis Pasteur was a French chemist and microbiologist born in Dole. He is remembered for his remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and preventions of diseases. His discoveries reduced mortality from puerperal fever, and he created the first vaccine for rabies and anthrax. His experiments supported the germ theory of disease. He was best known to the general public for inventing a method to stop milk and wine from causing sickness, a process that came to be called pasteurization. He is regarded as one of the three main founders of microbiology, together with Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch.
- Phương pháp bảo quản sữa của Louis Pasteur.
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* Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913) (British) (naturalist; biogeography):
- Alfred Russel Wallace, OM, FRS was a British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist and biologist. He is best known for independently proposing a theory of evolution due to natural selection that prompted Charles Darwin to publish his own theory.
- Wallace did extensive fieldwork, first in the Amazon River basin and then in the Malay Archipelago, where he identified the Wallace Line that divides the Indonesian archipelago into two distinct parts, one in which animals closely related to those of Australia are common, and one in which the species are largely of Asian origin. He was considered the 19th century's leading expert on the geographical distribution of animal species and is sometimes called the "father of biogeography". Wallace was one of the leading evolutionary thinkers of the 19th century and made a number of other contributions to the development of evolutionary theory besides being co-discoverer of natural selection. These included the concept of warning colouration in animals, and the Wallace effect, a hypothesis on how natural selection could contribute to speciation by encouraging the development of barriers against hybridization.
- Alfred Russel Wallace được lịch sử nhìn nhận là đồng tác giả với Darwin về sự đào thải tự nhiên (1858). Ông là một tương phản sống động với Darwin. Sinh ra trong một gia đình nghèo với chín người con ở Monmouthshire miền nam xứ Gan, theo học trung học được ít năm rồi bỏ dở lúc 14 tuổi, sau đó tự học qua việc đọc sách. Khi còn là thiếu niên, cậu được đi thăm Luân Đôn, thường xuyên lui tới “Câu lạc bộ khoa học” ở đường Tottenham Court, tại đây ông theo chủ nghĩa xã hội và “chủ nghĩa thế tục” của Robert Owen, một chủ nghĩa hoài nghi mọi tôn giáo. Ông kiếm sống cùng với anh mình bằng nghề đo đạc tập sự, rồi tự học để trở thành một giáo viên ở Leicester. Tại đây ông may mắn được gặp Henry Walter Bates (1825-1892), một người say mê Homer, Gibbon và một nhà côn trùng học nghiệp dư. Bates và Wallace mau chóng trở thành bạn thân và cùng nhau đi rảo khắp miền quê sưu tầm những con bọ cánh rừng.
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* Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895) (English) (biologist):
- Thomas Henry Huxley PC FRS was an English biologist, known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his advocacy of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution.
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* Sir Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917) (English) (anthropologist: Nhà nhân loại học):
- Sir Edward Burnett Tylor was an English anthropologist. Tylor is representative of cultural evolutionism. In his works Primitive Culture and Anthropology, he defined the context of the scientific study of anthropology, based on the evolutionary theories of Charles Lyell. He believed that there was a functional basis for the development of society and religion, which he determined was universal. E. B. Tylor is considered by many to be a founding figure of the science of social anthropology, and his scholarly works are seen as important and lasting contributions to the discipline of anthropology that was beginning to take shape in the 19th century. He believed that research into the history and prehistory of man could be used as a basis for the reform of British society.
- CULTURE
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* William Morris (1834-1896) (English) (designer):

William Morris textile

- William Morris was an English textile designer, artist, writer, and socialist associated with the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and the English Arts and Crafts Movement. He founded a design firm in partnership with the artist Edward Burne-Jones, and the poet and artist Dante Gabriel Rossetti which profoundly influenced the decoration of churches and houses into the early 20th century. He was also a major contributor to reviving traditional textile arts and methods of production, and one of the founders of the SPAB, now a statutory element in the preservation of historic buildings in the UK.
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* Sir James A.H. Murray (1837-1915) (Scottish) (lexicographer):
- Sir James Augustus Henry Murray was a Scottish lexicographer and philologist. He was the primary editor of the Oxford English Dictionary from 1879 until his death.
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* Edward Whymber (1840-1911) (English) (mountaineer):
- Edward Whymper was an English illustrator, climber and explorer best known for the first ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865. On the descent four members of the party were killed. (Matterhorn is a mountain in the Pennine Alps on the border between Switzerland and Italy. Its summit is 4,478 metres  high, making it one of the highest peaks in the Alps.)
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* Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) (German) (psychologist):
- Hermann Ebbinghaus was a German psychologist who pioneered the experimental study of memory, and is known for his discovery of the forgetting curve and the spacing effect. He was also the first person to describe the learning curve. He was the father of the eminent Neo-Kantian philosopher Julius Ebbinghaus.
- The Ebbinghaus illusion was named for its discoverer, the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus. It was popularised in the English-speaking world by Titchener in a 1901 textbook of experimental psychology, hence its alternative name "Titchener circles".
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* Ludwig Lazarus Zamenhof (1859-1917) (Poland) (Esperanto):
- Ludwig Lazarus Zamenhof was the inventor of Esperanto, the most successful constructed language designed for international communication.
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* James Joyce (1882-1941) (Irish) (novelist):
- James Augustine Aloysius Joyce was an Irish novelist and poet, considered to be one of the most influential writers in the modernist avant-garde of the early 20th century. Joyce is best known for Ulysses (1922), a landmark novel which perfected his stream of consciousness technique and combined nearly every literary device available in a modern re-telling of The Odyssey.
✍ gutenberg.org/ebooks/4300 Ulysses by James Joyce

Who (18th century)

* Carl von Linnaeus (1707-1778) (Swedish) (botanist):
-Carl Linnaeus was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of binomial nomenclature. He is known as the father of modern taxonomy (Sự phân loại trong giới sinh vật), and is also considered one of the fathers of modern ecology.
- modern taxonomy (John Ray; Carl Von Linnaeus)
- Linnaeus lớn lên ở Stenbrohult, nơi ông mô tả là "nơi đẹp nhất trên khắp đất Thụy Điển..."
- Linnaeus là một Freud của thế giới thực vật. Ở cuối thế kỷ 20, chúng ta đã quen nói về giới tính một cách tự do, khiến chúng ta quên rằng vào thời tiền - Freud, người ta luôn cảm thấy xấu hổ khi đề cập đến giới tính nơi công cộng, dù cho là giới tính của cỏ cây. Trong khoa thực vật học của Linnaeus, giống như trong khoa tâm lý học của Freud, sự kiện sơ đẳng là giới tính.
•• Linnaeus đặt loài người vào Họ có vú thuộc Dòng Linh trưởng và phân biệt những giống người khác nhau (đọc cái phân loại này thú vị phết!)
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* Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707-1788) (French) (naturalist):
- Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon was a French naturalist, mathematician, cosmologist, and encyclopedic author. His works influenced the next two generations of naturalists, including Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and Georges Cuvier. It has been said that "Truly, Buffon was the father of all thought in natural history in the second half of the 18th century."
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* Samuel Johnson (Dr.Johnson) (1709-1784) (English) (essayist, lexicographer):
- Samuel Johnson, often referred to as Dr Johnson, was an English author who made lasting contributions to English literature as a poet, essayist, moralist, literary critic, biographer, editor and lexicographer. Johnson was a devout Anglican and committed Tory, and has been described as "arguably the most distinguished man of letters in English history". He is also the subject of "the most famous single work of biographical art in the whole of literature": James Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson.
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* Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) (French) (philosopher):
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a major philosopher, writer, and composer of 18th-century Romanticism. His political philosophy heavily influenced the French Revolution, as well as the American Revolution and the overall development of modern political, sociological and educational thought. His novel, Émile: or, On Education is a seminal treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship. His sentimental novel, Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse, was of great importance to the development of pre-romanticism and romanticism in fiction.

Pages from "Encyclopédie"

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* Denis Diderot (1713-1784) (French) (Bách khoa Diderot - Encyclopédie)
- Denis Diderot (October 5, 1713 – July 31, 1784) was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer. He was a prominent persona during the Enlightenment and is best-known for serving as co-founder and chief editor of and contributor to the Encyclopédie (published 1751-1772).
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* Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717-1768) (German) (archaeologist; art historian):
- Johann Joachim Winckelmann was a German art historian and archaeologist. He was a pioneering Hellenist who first articulated the difference between Greek, Greco-Roman and Roman art. Defined "The prophet and founding hero of modern archaeology", Winckelmann was one of the founders of scientific archaeology and first applied the categories of style on a large, systematic basis to the history of art. Many consider him the father of the discipline of art history. His would be the decisive influence on the rise of the neoclassical (Tân Cổ điển) movement during the late 18th century. His writings influenced not only a new science of archaeology and art history but Western painting, sculpture, literature and even philosophy. Winckelmann's History of Ancient Art (1764) was one of the first books written in German to become a classic of European literature. His subsequent influence on Lessing, Herder, Goethe, Hölderlin, Heine, Nietzsche, George, and Spengler has been provocatively called "the Tyranny of Greece over Germany."
- Today, Humboldt University of Berlin's Winckelmann Institute is dedicated to the study of classical archaeology.
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* Jean Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783) (French) (mathematician):
- Jean-Baptiste le Rond d'Alembert was a French mathematician, mechanician, physicist, philosopher, and music theorist. He was also co-editor with Denis Diderot of the Encyclopédie. D'Alembert's method for the wave equation is named after him.
- Jean Rond d'Alembert là "đồ đệ" của Sir Isaac Newton.
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* Ferdinand Berthoud (1727-1807) (Swiss) (watchmaker):
- Ferdinand Berthoud was a Swiss chronometer-maker.
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* James Cook (1728-1779) (British) (navigator):
- Captain James Cook FRS RN was a British explorer, navigator and cartographer, ultimately rising to the rank of Captain in the Royal Navy. Cook made detailed maps of Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific Ocean during which he achieved the first European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands as well as the first recorded circumnavigation of New Zealand.
◎ lucidcafe.com Captain James Cook

(Lamarck) giraffe

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* Lamarck (1744-1829) (French) (naturalist; botany):
- Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, Chevalier de la Marck, often just known as "Lamarck", was a French soldier, naturalist, academic and an early proponent of the idea that evolution occurred and proceeded in accordance with natural laws.
◎ Tóm tắt học thuyết tiến hóa của Lamarck (thuviensinhhoc.com)
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* Valentin Hauy (1745-1822) (French):
- Valentin Haüy was the founder, in 1784, of the first school for the blind, the Royal Institution for the Young Blind in Paris (now the National Institute for the Young Blind, INJA). In 1819, Louis Braille entered this school.
- Valentin Haüy’s brother, René Just Haüy, is considered a founder of modern mineralogy (Khoáng vật học).
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* John Dalton (1766-1844) (English) (chemist):
- John Dalton FRS was an English chemist, meteorologist and physicist. He is best known for his pioneering work in the development of modern atomic theory, and his research into colour blindness (sometimes referred to as Daltonism, in his honour).
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* Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859) (German):
- Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander Freiherr von Humboldt was a German naturalist and explorer, and the younger brother of the Prussian (nước Phổ) minister, philosopher and linguist Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835). Humboldt's quantitative work on botanical geography laid the foundation for the field of biogeography. Between 1799 and 1804, Humboldt travelled extensively in Latin America, exploring and describing it for the first time in a manner generally considered to be a modern scientific point of view.
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* William Wordsworth (1770-1850) (English) (poet):
- William Wordsworth was a major English Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with the 1798 joint publication Lyrical Ballads.
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* Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1779-1848) (Swedish) (chemist):
- Jöns Jacob Berzelius was a Swedish chemist. He worked out the modern technique of chemical formula notation, and is together with John Dalton, Antoine Lavoisier, and Robert Boyle considered a father of modern chemistry. He began his career as a physician but his researches in physical chemistry were of lasting significance in the development of the subject. He achieved much in later life as secretary of the Swedish Academy. He is known in Sweden as the Father of Swedish Chemistry. Trong ngành Hóa học hiện đại, hệ thống viết tắt sử dụng chữ cái đầu tiên tên La tinh của mỗi nguyên tố (e.g. KCl, H2O, CO2) đã được sáng chế bởi nhà hóa học Thụy Điển Berzelius.
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* Christian Jürgensen Thomsen (1788-1865) (Danish) (archaeologist: Nhà khảo cổ học) (about prehistory):
- Christian Jürgensen Thomsen was a Danish archaeologist. In 1816 he was appointed head of 'antiquarian' collections which later developed into the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen. While organizing and classifying the antiquities for exhibition, he decided to present them chronologically according to the three-age system. Other scholars had previously proposed that prehistory had advanced from an age of stone tools, to ages of tools made from bronze and iron, but these proposals were presented as systems of evolution, which did not allow dating of artifacts. Thomsen refined the three-age system as a chronological system by seeing which artifacts occurred with which other artifacts in closed finds. In this way, he was the first to establish an evidence-based division of prehistory into discrete periods. This achievement led to his being credited as the originator of the three-age system of European antiquity.
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* Lambert A.J. Quetelet (1796-1874) (Belgian) (statistician):
- Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quetelet was a Belgian astronomer, mathematician, statistician and sociologist. He founded and directed the Brussels Observatory and was influential in introducing statistical methods to the social sciences.
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* Charles Lyell (1797,Scotland-1875,England) (British) (geologist: Nhà địa chất học):
- Sir Charles Lyell, 1st Baronet, Kt FRS was a British lawyer and the foremost geologist of his day. He is best known as the author of Principles of Geology, which popularised James Hutton's concepts of uniformitarianism – the idea that the earth was shaped by slow-moving forces still in operation today. Lyell was a close and influential friend of Charles Darwin.

Who (17th century)

* Henry Oldenburg (c.1619-1677) (German) (He was the (1st) secretary of the Royal Society):
- Henry Oldenburg (Heinrich) was a German theologian known as a diplomat and a natural philosopher. He was one of the foremost intelligencers of Europe of the 17th century, with a network of correspondents to rival those of Fabri de Peiresc, Marin Mersenne and Ismaël Boulliau. At the foundation of the Royal Society he took on the task of foreign correspondence, as the first Secretary.
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* John Graunt (1620-1674) (English) (demographer: Nhà nhân khẩu học):
- John Graunt was one of the first demographers, though by profession he was a haberdasher. Born in London, Graunt, along with William Petty, developed early human statistical and census (sự điều tra dân số; tổng điều tra) methods that later provided a framework for modern demography. He is credited with producing the first life table, giving probabilities of survival to each age. Graunt is also considered as one of the first experts in epidemiology (Dịch tễ học), since his famous book was concerned mostly with public health statistics.
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* Sir William Petty (1623-1687) (English) (economist):
- Sir William Petty was an English economist, scientist and philosopher. He first became prominent serving Oliver Cromwell and Commonwealth in Ireland. He developed efficient methods to survey the land that was to be confiscated and given to Cromwell's soldiers. He also managed to remain prominent under King Charles II and King James II, as did many others who had served Cromwell.
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Francesco Redi's experiment

* Francesco Redi (1626-1697,Pisa) (Italy) (naturalist):
- Francesco Redi was an Italian physician, naturalist, and poet.
- In 1668, Francesco Redi did an experiment with flies and wide-mouth jars containing meat.
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* John Ray (1627-1705) (English) (naturalist):
- John Ray was an English naturalist, sometimes referred to as the father of English natural history. He published important works on botany, zoology, and natural theology. His classification of plants in his Historia Plantarum, was an important step towards modern taxonomy. He was the first to give a biological definition of the term species.
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* Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694) (Italy) (doctor):
- Marcello Malpighi was an Italian doctor, who gave his name to several physiological features, like the Malpighian tubule system.
- See: Khoa hiển vi học (Sử dụng công cụ kính hiển vi)
- Malpighi đã khám phá ra mao mạch.
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* Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) (Dutch):

x = Acos(ωt + ψ)

-Christiaan Huygens was a prominent Dutch mathematician, astronomer, physicist and horologist. His work included early telescopic studies elucidating the nature of the rings of Saturn (Sao Thổ) and the discovery of its moon Titan, the invention of the pendulum clock and other investigations in timekeeping, and studies of both optics and the centrifugal force.
- In 1656, Huygens invented the first pendulum clock.
◎ schillerinstitute.org La Rouche; The Essential Role of‘Time-Reversal’ in Mathematical Economics
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* Antonie Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) (Dutch) (microbiologist):
- Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek was a Dutch tradesman and scientist from Delft, Netherlands. He is commonly known as "the Father of Microbiology", and considered to be the first microbiologist. He is best known for his work on the improvement of the microscope and for his contributions towards the establishment of microbiology. Using his handcrafted microscopes he was the first to observe and describe single celled organisms, which he originally referred to as animalcules, and which we now refer to as microorganisms. He was also the first to record microscopic observations of muscle fibers, bacteria, spermatozoa (hix, từ này có nghĩa là 'tinh trùng' ạ) and blood flow in capillaries (small blood vessels). Van Leeuwenhoek did not author any books, although he did write many letters.
- Năm 1680, Leeuwenhoek được nhận làm hội viên của Royal Society (Hội Hoàng Gia London). Sự kiện này mở ra một thế giới mới cho các nhà khoa học quốc tế và không có tính hàn lâm mà trong thế giới đó tri thức được thăng tiến không chỉ nhờ những con người nắm giữ tri thức truyền thống. Những người “thợ máy” bình thường, những nhà nghiệp dư, cũng có chỗ đứng riêng của họ (Leeuwenhoek xuất thân từ tầng lớp bình dân; cha của ông là một người thợ bán giỏ ở Hà Lan.).
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* Robert Hooke (1635-1703) (English):

wine cork (nút bần, li-e)

- Robert Hooke FRS (18 July 1635 – 3 March 1703) was an English natural philosopher, architect and polymath who played an important role in the scientific revolution, through both experimental and theoretical work.
- Robert Hooke and the discovery of the cells (observe slices of cork through a microscope) (science-of-aging.healthaliciousness.com)
- In 1665 Hooke published Micrographia, a book describing his microscopic and telescopic observations, and some original work in biology. Hooke coined the term cell (Latin 'cella' means 'a small room') for describing biological organisms, the term being suggested by the resemblance of plant cells to monks' cells.
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* Jan Swammerdam (1637,Amsterdam-1680)  (Dutch) (biologist):
- Jan Swammerdam was a Dutch biologist and microscopist. His work on insects demonstrated that the various phases during the life of an insect—egg, larva, pupa, and adult—are different forms of the same animal. As part of his anatomical research, he carried out experiments on muscle contraction. In 1668, he was the first to observe and describe red blood cells.
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* Nicolas Steno (1638-1686) (Danish):
- Nicolas Steno was a Danish pioneer in both anatomy and geology. Already in 1659 he decided not to accept anything simply written in a book, instead resolving to do research himself. He is considered the father of geology and stratigraphy (Địa tầng học).
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* Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727):
- Sir Isaac Newton PRS was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian.
- His monograph Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, lays the foundations for most of classical mechanics. In this work, Newton described universal gravitation (lực vạn vật hấp dẫn, trọng lực) and the three laws of motion, which dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next 3 centuries. Newton showed that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws, by demonstrating the consistency between Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his theory of gravitation, thus removing the last doubts about heliocentrism and advancing the Scientific Revolution.
◎ Isaac Newton's Gravity. How a major new exhibition gets the scientist wrong. (slate.com)
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* Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) (German):
- Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was a German philosopher and mathematician.
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* Edward Tyson (1650-1708) (British) (anatomy):
- Edward Tyson was a British scientist and physician, commonly regarded as the founder of modern comparative anatomy, which compares the anatomy between species.
- Năm 1699, Edward Tyson và William Cowper đã công bố kết quả của họ trong việc giải phẫu một con tinh tinh (Orang Outang - Giải phẫu một con vật lùn (Pygmie)). Tyson đã đạt tới ngưỡng cửa của khoa nhân chủng học tự nhiên.
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* Thomas Newcomen (1664-1729) (English) (forefather of the Industrial Revolution):
- Thomas Newcomen was an ironmonger by trade and a Baptist lay preacher by calling. He was born in Dartmouth, Devon, England, near a part of the country noted for its tin mines. Flooding was a major problem, limiting the depth at which the mineral could be mined. Newcomen created the first practical steam engine for pumping water, the Newcomen steam engine. Consequently, he can be regarded as a forefather of the Industrial Revolution.
- Thomas Newcomen, English engineer who invented a steam engine, which James Watt later modified and developed.

Who (16th century)

* Juanelo Torriano (1501-1585) (Italy, Spain):
- Juanelo Turriano was an Italo-Spanish clockmaker, engineer and mathematician.
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* Robert Horne (1510s-1579) (English) (bishop):
- Robert Horne was an English churchman, and a leading reforming Protestant. One of the Marian exiles, he was subsequently bishop of Winchester from 1560 to 1580.
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* Gerardus Mercator (1512-1594) (cartographer: người vẽ bản đồ):
- Gerardus Mercator was a cartographer, born in Rupelmonde in the Hapsburg County of Flanders, part of the Holy Roman Empire. He is remembered for the Mercator projection world map, which is named after him. This proved very useful to many later explorers.
- Phương pháp chiếu dọi mặt cầu xuống một mặt phẳng (Hình dung các đường kinh tuyến của Trái đất cũng giống như là các đường khi ta khía dọc vỏ một quả cam. Ta sẽ khía dọc vỏ quả cam để chia nó thành một số miếng đều nhau. Sau đó, ta dải các miếng đó xuống một mặt phẳng và kéo dãn các miếng đó thành hình chữ nhật xếp liền nhau).
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* Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) (Belgium) (anatomist: Nhà giải phẫu học):
- Andreas Vesalius was an anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On the Fabric of the Human Body) (Cuốn sách này được xuất bản năm 1543, cùng năm với cuốn De Revolutionibus của Copernic). Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy.
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* Conrad Gessner (1516,Zurich-1565) (Swiss) (naturalist):
- Conrad Gessner (Konrad Gessner) was a Swiss naturalist and bibliographer (Nhà thư mục học, Nhà thư tịch học, Thư viện). His five-volume Historiae animalium (1551-1558) is considered the beginning of modern zoology, and the flowering plant genus Gesneria (Gesneriaceae) is named after him. He is denoted by the author abbreviation Gesner when citing a botanical name.
- Konrad Gessner được xem là ông tổ của Khoa Thư Tịch học (danh mục sách & thư viện).
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* Abraham Ortelius (1527-1598) (cartographer):

Ortelius world map 1570

- Abraham Ortelius (Abraham Ortels) was a Flemish cartographer and geographer, generally recognised as the creator of the first modern atlas, the Theatrum Orbis Terrarum (Theatre of the World). He is also believed to be the first person to imagine that the continents were joined together before drifting to their present positions.
- See: Old World Map by Abraham Ortelius in 1570 (worldmapsonline.com; memory.loc.gov)
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* Fabricus ab Aquapendende (1537-1619) (anatomist):
- Hieronymus Fabricius or by his Latin name Fabricus ab Aquapendende was a pioneering anatomist and surgeon known in medical science as "The Father of Embryology (Phôi học; Khoa Phôi thai)"
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* Joseph Justus Scaliger (1540-1609) (French) (scholar):
- Joseph Justus Scaliger was a French religious leader and scholar, known for expanding the notion of classical history from Greek and Ancient Roman history to include Persian, Babylonian, Jewish and Ancient Egyptian history.
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* Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) (Danish) (astronomy):
- Tycho Brahe was a Danish nobleman known for his accurate and comprehensive astronomical and planetary observations. Coming from Scania, then part of Denmark, now part of modern-day Sweden, Tycho was well known in his lifetime as an astronomer and alchemist.
- 7 môn của các khoa học nhân văn được giảng dạy vào khoảng Thế kỷ 14, 15, 16 ở Âu Châu gồm ngữ pháp, tu từ, logic, hình học, thiên văn học, số học và âm nhạc. Ngoài ra có thể học thêm chiêm tinh học, Y học, Luật học, etc.
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* Simon Stevin (c.1548 Bruges,Flanders,Belgium-1620) (Belgium):
- Simon Stevin was a Flemish mathematician and military engineer. He was active in a great many areas of science and engineering, both theoretical and practical. He also translated various mathematical terms into Dutch, making it one of the few European languages in which the word for mathematics, wiskunde ("the art of what is certain"), was not derived from Greek.
- See: Bảng lãi suất ngân hàng của Simon Stevin; Hệ thập phân (nhưng chưa phát minh ra dấu chấm để ngăn cách phần thập phân)
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* Edmund Spenser (c.1552-1599) (English) (poet):
- Edmund Spenser was an English poet best known for The Faerie Queene, an epic poem and fantastical allegory celebrating the Tudor dynasty and Elizabeth I. He is recognized as one of the premier craftsmen of Modern English verse in its infancy, and one of the greatest poets in the English language.
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* Matteo Ricci, SJ (利玛窦; pinyin: Lì Mǎdòu)(1552-1610) (nhà truyền giáo):
- Matteo Ricci was an Italian Jesuit priest, and one of the founding figures of the Jesuit China Mission, as it existed in the 17th-18th centuries.
- Cuối thời nhà Minh ở Trung Hoa: Ngày 21st June 1629 đã là một cơ hội lớn cho các cha Dòng Tên bước vào cánh cổng đất nước China khi mà họ đã dự báo đúng về sự kiện Nhật thực hôm đó. Nhờ việc dự đoán đúng này mà vị thế của các cha Dòng Tên đối với Vua nhà Minh khi đó trở nên vững vàng. Cánh cổng vào China mới chỉ hé mở cho Matteo Ricci mấy chục năm trước thì sau năm 1629 nó đã 'mở toang' để đón nhận văn hóa phương Tây.
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* Santorio Santorio (1561-1636,Venice) (Italy):
- Santorio Santorio also called Sanctorius of Padua, was an Italian physiologist, physician, and professor. From 1611 to 1624 he was a professor at Padua where he performed experiments in temperature, respiration and weight. Sanctorius studied what he termed insensible perspiration and originated the study of metabolism (sự trao đổi chất).
- For a period of 30 years Sanctorius weighed himself, everything he ate and drank, as well as his urine and feces. He compared the weight of what he had eaten to that of his waste products, the latter being considerably smaller. He produced his theory of insensible perspiration as an attempt to account for this difference. His findings had little scientific value, but he is still celebrated for his empirical methodology (phương pháp kinh nghiệm → Ngành Y khoa thống kê). The "weighing chair", which he constructed and employed during this experiment, is also famous.
- He is credited with the design of the clinical thermometer. He invented a device which he called the pulsilogium for measuring the pulse which was the first machine system in medical history.
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* Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) (German):
- Johannes Kepler was a German mathematician, astronomer and astrologer, and key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution. He is best known for his eponymous laws of planetary motion, codified by later astronomers, based on his works Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome of Copernican Astronomy. These works also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation.
- See: 3 định luật chuyển động của các hành tinh by Kepler (trungdung.free.fr)
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* Robert Fludd (1574,Kent-1637,London) (English):
- Robert Fludd was a prominent English Paracelsian physician, astrologer, mathematician, cosmologist, Qabalist, Rosicrucian apologist. He was not a member of the Rosicrucians, as often alleged, but he defended their thoughts in the Apologia Compendiaria of 1616.
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* William Harvey (1578-1657) (English) (circulation of blood):
- William Harvey (1 April 1578 – 3 June 1657) was an English physician who was the first person to describe completely and in detail the systemic circulation and properties of blood being pumped to the body by the heart. After his death "The William Harvey Hospital" was constructed in the town of Ashford, several miles from his birthplace of Folkestone, Kent, England.
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* Marin Mersenne (1588-1648) (French):
- Marin Mersenne was a French theologian, philosopher, mathematician and music theorist, often referred to as the "father of acoustics (ÂM HỌC)".
- In 1635 Mersenne met with Tommaso Campanella, but concluded that he could "teach nothing in the sciences (...) but still he has a good memory and a fertile imagination." Mersenne asked if René Descartes wanted Campanella to come to Holland to meet him, but Descartes declined. In 1643-1644 Mersenne also corresponded with the German Socinian Marcin Ruar concerning the Copernican ideas of Pierre Gassendi, finding Ruar already a supporter of Gassendi's position. Among his correspondents was Dekar, Galilei, Roberval, Pascal, Bekman and another scientists.
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* Rene Descartes (1596-1650):
- Descartes' biography (home.wlu.edu)

Who (15th century)

* Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457) (Italy) (humanist):
- Lorenzo (or Laurentius) Valla was an Italian humanist, rhetorician, and educator. His family was from Piacenza; his father, Luciave della Valla, was a lawyer.
- Lorenzo Valla is one of the most important humanists in his time. (plato.stanford.edu)
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* Lopo Goncalves (15th century) (Portuguese):

Cape Lopez,
Gabon, Africa

- Lopes Gonçalves was a Portuguese explorer of the Atlantic. He discovered Gabon for Portugal and was the first to cross the Equator in 1473. The Portuguese navigator Lopo Gonçalves first rounded Cape Lopez in 1473.  (Gabon là một quốc gia ở Trung Phi. Gabon là 1 trong các quốc gia có đường xích đạo chạy qua. Vị trí của Gabon là khoảng 9 độ kinh Đông.)
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* Ambrogio Calepino (c.1440-1510) (Italy) (lexicographer: nhà từ điển học; như kiểu Đào Duy Anh của nước mình ý!):
- Ambrogio Calepino was an Italian lexicographer. Calepino đã trở thành thuật ngữ tiếng Italy để chỉ cuốn từ điển (dictionary), giống như từ Webster sau này trong tiếng Anh.
* Webster's Dictionary is the name given to a common type of English language dictionary in the United States. The name is derived from lexicographer Noah Webster (1758-1843) and has become a genericized trademark for this type of dictionary. Although Merriam-Webster (merriam-webster.com) are descended from the original work of Noah Webster, many other dictionaries bear his name, such as those published by Random House and by John Wiley & Sons.
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* John Cabot (c.1450-c.1499) (Italy) (explorer):
- John Cabot (known in Italian as Giovanni Caboto) was an Italian navigator and explorer whose 1497 discovery of parts of North America is commonly held to have been the first European voyager to travel to the continent of North America since the Norse Vikings in the 11th century. The official position of the Canadian and United Kingdom governments is that he landed on the island of Newfoundland.
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* Christopher Columbus (c.1451-1506):
- Christopher Columbus was an explorer, colonizer, and navigator, born in the Republic of Genoa, in northwestern Italy. Under the auspices of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, he completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean that led to general European awareness of the American continents in the Western Hemisphere. Those voyages, and his efforts to establish permanent settlements in the island of Hispaniola, initiated the process of Spanish colonization, which foreshadowed the general European colonization of the "New World."
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* Abraham Zacuto (1452-c.1515):
- Abraham Zacuto was a Sephardi Jewish astronomer, astrologer, mathematician and historian who served as Royal Astronomer in the 15th century to King John II of Portugal. The crater Zagut on the Moon is named after him.Zacuto was born in Salamanca, Spain in 1452. He may have studied and taught astronomy at the University of Salamanca.
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* Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) (Italy):
- Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci was an Italian polymath: painter, sculptor, architect, musician, scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, geologist, cartographer, botanist and writer. Leonardo has often been described as the archetype of the Renaissance Man, a man of "unquenchable curiosity" and "feverishly inventive imagination". He is widely considered to be one of the greatest painters of all time and perhaps the most diversely talented person ever to have lived.
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* Amerigo Vespucci (1454-1512) (Italy):
-Amerigo Vespucci was an Italian explorer, navigator and cartographer. The Americas are generally believed to have derived their name from the feminized Latin version of his first name. (!!!) Amerigo qua đời bởi bệnh sốt rét mà lúc đó chưa có thuốc chữa.
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* Vasco da Gama (c.1460-1524) (Portuguese):

Vasco da Gama's route
to Calicut, India (1498)

- Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese explorer, one of the most successful in the Age of Discovery and the commander of the first ships to sail directly from Europe to India. For a short time in 1524 he was the Governor of Portuguese India, under the title of Viceroy.
- (asij.ac.jp/elementary) Vasco da Gama was born in Sines, Portugal, in 1460, the year Prince Henry of Portugal, more famously known as Henry the Navigator, died.  Da Gama’s father was a member of the royal household of Prince Dom Frenoyo, and young Vasco grew up in the town of Lisbon.  Estevao da Gama and Isabel Sodr were good parents to Vasco. They made sure that at a young age he learned how to fish, swim and sail.  Then at school, between 1484 and 1492 and most probably in the town of Evora, he studied astronomy and navigation. 
- 22nd May 1498: Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut, India. He returned to Lisbon in September 1499.
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* Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) (Italy):
- Niccolò Machiavelli was an Italian philosopher, humanist, and writer based in Florence during the Renaissance. He is one of the main founders of modern political science. He was a diplomat, political philosopher, playwright, and a civil servant of the Florentine Republic. His best-known book was 'The Prince'.
◎ ctbw.com/lubman.htm Niccolo Machiavelli
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* Martin Waldseemuller (c.1470-1520) (German) (cartographer):
- Martin Waldseemüller was a German cartographer. He and Matthias Ringmann are credited with the first recorded usage of the word America, on the 1507 map Universalis Cosmographia in honor of the Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci.
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* Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) (Poland):
- Nicolaus Copernicus was a Renaissance astronomer and the first person to formulate a comprehensive heliocentric cosmology which displaced the Earth from the center of the universe.
- Copernicus' epochal book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), published just before his death in 1543, is often regarded as the starting point of modern astronomy and the defining epiphany that began the scientific revolution. His heliocentric model, with the Sun at the center of the universe, demonstrated that the observed motions of celestial objects can be explained without putting Earth at rest in the center of the universe. His work stimulated further scientific investigations, becoming a landmark in the history of science that is often referred to as the Copernican Revolution.
- Copernic đã dựa vào lý thuyết về nhận thức của phái Pythagoras. Theo phái Pythagoras, tri thức thuần túy là sự thanh tẩy (catharis) tâm hồn. Nghĩa là vươn lên khỏi bình diện những dữ kiện của giác quan con người. Thực tại bản thể thuần túy chỉ có trong thế giới các con số. Sự cân đối đơn sơ và kỳ diệu của các con số cắt nghĩa cho sự hòa điệu của âm nhạc làm cho ta thấy khoái tai. Chính vì lý do đó họ đã sáng tạo ra các thuật ngữ âm nhạc như quãng tám, quãng năm, quãng bốn, được diễn ra bằng 2:1, 3:1 và 4:3.
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* Michelangelo (1475-1564) (Italy):
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* Vasco Balboa (c.1475-1519) (Spanish) (explorer):
- Vasco Núñez de Balboa was a Spanish explorer, governor, and conquistador. He is best known for having crossed the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific Ocean in 1513, becoming the first European to lead an expedition to have seen or reached the Pacific from the New World.
- He traveled to the New World in 1500 and, after some exploration, settled on the island of Hispaniola. He founded the settlement of Santa María la Antigua del Darién in present-day Colombia in 1510, which was the first permanent European settlement on the mainland of the Americas.
- see more at enchantedlearning.com
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* Ferdinand Magellan (c.1480-1521) (Portuguese):
- Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese explorer. He was born in Sabrosa, in northern Portugal, and served King Charles I of Spain in search of a westward route to the "Spice Islands" (modern Maluku Islands in Indonesia).
- Magellan's expedition of 1519–1522 became the first expedition to sail from the Atlantic Ocean into the Pacific Ocean (then named "peaceful sea" by Magellan; the passage being made via the Strait of Magellan), and the first to cross the Pacific. It also completed the first circumnavigation of the Earth, although Magellan himself did not complete the entire voyage, being killed during the Battle of Mactan in the Philippines. (Magellan had, however, traveled eastwards to the Malay Peninsula on an earlier voyage, so he became one of the first explorers to cross all of the meridians of the globe.) Of the 237 men who set out on five ships, only 18 completed the circumnavigation and managed to return to Spain in 1522, led by the Basque Spaniard navigator Juan Sebastián Elcano, who took over command of the expedition after Magellan's death. Seventeen other men arrived later in Spain: twelve men captured by the Portuguese in Cape Verde some weeks earlier and between 1525 and 1527, and five survivors of the Trinidad.
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* Martin Luther (1483-1546) (German) (priest):
- Martin Luther was a German priest and professor of theology who initiated the Protestant Reformation. He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment of sin could be purchased with money. He confronted indulgence salesman Johann Tetzel with his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517. His refusal to retract all of his writings at the demand of Pope Leo X in 1520 and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Worms in 1521 resulted in his excommunication by the pope and condemnation as an outlaw by the emperor.
- See: Augsburg Confession (1530)
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* Las Casas (1484-1566) (Spanish) (about 'Indians'):
- Bartolomé de las Casas O.P. was a 16th-century Spanish historian, social reformer and Dominican friar. He became the first resident Bishop of Chiapas, and the first officially appointed "Protector of the Indians".
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* Hernando Cortes (1485-1547) (Spanish):
- Hernán Cortés was a Spanish conquistador who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large portions of mainland Mexico under the rule of the King of Castile in the early 16th century. Cortés was part of the generation of Spanish colonizers that began the first phase of the Spanish colonization of the Americas.
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* Juan Sebastián Elcano (1486-1526) (Spanish):
- Juan Sebastián Elcano was a Basque Spanish explorer who completed the first circumnavigation of the world. As Ferdinand Magellan's second in command, Elcano took over after Magellan's death in the Philippines.
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* Paracelsus (1493-1541) (Swiss) (alchemist, botanist):
- Paracelsus was a Swiss Renaissance physician, botanist, alchemist, astrologer, and general occultist. "Paracelsus", meaning "equal to or greater than Celsus", refers to the Roman encyclopedist Aulus Cornelius Celsus from the 1st century, known for his tract on medicine. He is also credited for giving zinc its name, calling it zincum and is regarded as the first systematic botanist.
- Paracelsus đã nghiên cứu về bệnh nghề nghiệp được trình bày trong tác phẩm của ông nhan đề ' Về căn bệnh của thợ mỏ' xuất bản năm 1567 (khi ông đã qua đời).
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* Hieronymus Bock (1498-1554) (German) (botanist):
- Hieronymus Bock was a German botanist, physician, and Lutheran minister who began the transition from medieval botany to the modern scientific worldview by arranging plants by their relation or resemblance.
- Major work by Hieronymus Bock: the book Neu Kreutterbuch (1539) (detailed description & careful illustration about approx. 700 plants)